LB 3221 
.05 
Copy 1 



16 



ESSAY 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES, 

TO WHICH 

WAS AAyARDED THE PRIZE 

• OFFERED BT THE 

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION, 

AUGUST, 1831. 



BY WILLIAM A.'aLCOTT. 



WITH AN APPENDIX. 



^. 



BOSTON: 
IIILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE AND WILKINS, 

RICHARDSON, LORD AND HOLBROOK. 

1832. 



J^* Gentlemen who may receive this pamphlet, are respectful] 
requested to let teachers, school-committees, and others of taeir ac 
quaintance, that take an interest in the suhject of education, have a 
opportunity to become acquainted with its contents. 



REPORT 



The Committeej appointed by the Directors of the American 
Institute of Instruction, to examine the several Essays which 
have been offered " On the Construction of School-Houses,^^ 
and to award the Society's premium to the author of the best 
one, respectfully ask leave to 

REPORT: 

That they have given the subject committed to them, that 
deliberate consideration which its practical importance to the 
great cause of common education seemed to them to require. 
They have carefully examined five Essays, with their accom- 
panying plans ; some of them being of considerable length, 
and all of them containing valuable suggestions upon the 
several topics discussed in them. And while the Committee 
would not be understood to predicate absolute perfection of any 
of them, they have unanimously agreed that the one offered 
by William A. Alcott, of Hartford, Ct., is decidedly the 
best. And they do hereby award to him the premium of 
TWENTY DOLLARS, appropriated by the proper authorities of 
the Institute for that purpose. 

The Committee ask leave further to report, that pending 
then deliberations, they received a scientific and valuable com- 
munication from Mr. Woodbridge, of Hartford, Ct., upon the 
" Size of School- Booms ;^^ — a topic intimately connected 



IV REPORT. 

with, or rather forming a part of, the more general subject 
discussed in the Prize Essay. In view of its merit, both as a 
distinct performance, and as an amphfication of one topic ^f 
the subject proposed for the prize, the Committee herewith sub- 
mit the document ; and recommend that it be appended to 
the Prize Essay, and pubhshed with that, agreeably to the Re- 
solve with which this Report concludes. 

All which is respectfully submitted by your Committee. 

JAMES G. CARTER. 

E. BAILEY. 

J. KINGSBURY. 

1. Resolved, That the thanks of the Institute be present- 
ed to Mr. Woodbridge for his timely and valuable communi- 
cation upon the " Size of School-Rooms." 

2. Resolved, That the Prize Essay " On the best Construc- 
tion of School Houses " be read before the Institute, at such 
time during its present session as convenience may suggest ; 
and that, together with the document appended, it be printed 
under the direction of the Censors ; and that each member of 
the Institute receive, on application, one copy gratis. 



CONSTRUCTION 



S C HO OL-HOU SE S, 



That the general arrangement and appearance of even 
inanimate things around us, have an extensive influence in 
forming our character, will hardly be questioned. Every ob- 
ject, and every individual we see, either renders us more cheer- 
ful and happy, or the contrary. The condition of those ob- 
jects, therefore, which surround a collection of children, whether 
the number of those children be five, fifty, or one hundred, 
must of necessity have a very considerable influence in form- 
ing their dispositions, and giving a determination to their fu- 
ture character. 

Nor is their present comfort a matter of indifference, any 
more than that of the same number of adults. Where is the 
parent to be found, who would select as a location for his dwell- 
ing, the junction of four roads, or a portion of the highway, or 
a sand-bank, marsh, or swamp? Or, who would choose, for 
this purpose, a bleak hill, a wdlderness, or some lonely and se- 
cluded spot, rarely visited by man or beast ? With a few mis- 
anthropic exceptions, mankind love to dwell in airy places, 
affording a pleasant prospect. They are fond of having shade 
and fruit trees, shrubs, flowers, fountains, and greensward 
around their dwellings. The number of those who prefer the 
disagreeable sight of barren hills, and fields, and sand-banks, 
or the nauseous and unwholesome exhalations of stagnant 
1 



6 PRIZE ESSAY. 

water, the barn yard and the sty, to the fragrance and rich 
scenery alluded to, must certainly be small : yet what is more 
comm )n than to find school-houses exposed to many of these 
evils, and sometimes to all of them combined? The stronofcst 
evidence is every where afforded, that in constructing and fur- 
nishing them, we too often consult our own convenience, rather 
than the comfort, welfare, or accommodation of our children. 
Location, size, structure, internal arrangement and furniture — 
all combine to force upon our minds the same conclusion. The 
many dark, crowded, ill-looking, and sometimes disorderly 
and filthy huts, to be found in the country, called, or rather 
w.t5-called school-houses, seem to have been provided as a 
kind of necessary evil, rather than as places of voluntary and 
cheerful resort for the offspring of the proprietors. In con- 
formity with these views, we are told by a recent writer on this 
subject, that of forty school-houses with which he is acquainted 
in a single count}', ^^ three fourths,'" as he judges, are "located 
without regard to the comfort, health, and happiness of the 
children. They stand in gloomy, unhealthy places, without 
a feature of beauty in the scenery around them." 

Few, indeed, of the numerous school-houses in this country 
are well lighted. Fewer still are painted, even on the out- 
side. Play-grounds, for common schools, are scarcely known. 
Hence the pupils are obliged to play in the road, exposed to 
every attendant danger, both physical and moral. 

Nor are the internal arrangements more favorable. There 
is much suffering from the alternation of heat and cold, and 
from smoke. The feet of children have even sometimes been 
frozen. Too many pupils are confined to a single desk or 
bench, where they are constantly jostling or otherwise disturb- 
ing each other. The construction of the desks and benches 
is often bad. Little or no provision is made for free ventila- 
tion. Hundreds of rooms are so small that the pupils have 
not, upon the average, more ihan five or six square feet of sur- 
face each ; and here ihey are obhged to sit, breathing impure 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL. HOrSES. 7 

air, on benches often not more tlian six or eight inches wide, 
and without backs. Many of these benches are so high that 
the cliildren's feet cannot reach within several inches of the 
floor. Thus suspended, between the heavens and the earih, 
they are compelled to remain motionless for an hour or aa 
hour and a half together. These things ought not so to be. 
Their health and comfort are belie .ed to be for more important 
thaii their progress in science; and in providing for their ac- 
commodation during the hours of study, these are the first 
points to he secured. Health, as well as time, is monsy ; and 
it is a most mistaken economy which confines a child to those 
arrangements, and to that atmospheric impurity, which render 
him unfit for vigorous effort, and thus slowly, though surely, 
impair his constitution : for we impose by these means a far 
greater tax on the parent, than would be necessary in erecting 
the most spacious buildings, and furnishing ample and libera] 
accommodations. 

Some of the above-mentioned evils arise from the fact that 
the centre of ptjpulation of the district has usually determined 
the location of school-houses. But a central situation should be 
regarded as a matter of only secondary importance. The house 
should stand on an elevated spot of firm soil, at a moderate dis- 
tance from any oi her buildings, or any public road. A few shade 
trees should be near, and if convenient, fruit trees. A piece 
of ground, consisting of from a quarter to half an acre, should 
be devoted (o the purposes of the school, and enclosed by a 
fence or wall in such a manner as to prevent, at the pleasure 
of the it)struct,er, any communication from without. The 
main building should be near the side of the enclosure adjoin- 
ing the usual point of entrance. The wood should be kept 
in a separate building, as the danger from fire is thereby di- 
minished, and the house can be kept more cleanly nnd airy. 
In the rear of these should be a spacious play-ground, part of 
which shouli be paved, and covered with a kind of roof, or 
awning, where recreations may be conducted in unfavorabU 



8 PRIZE KSSAY. 

weather. Nearly of equal importance are a flower garden, a 
well or spring of good water, and facilities for washing. The 
rest of the enclosure may be devoted to the purposes of agri- 
culture and horticulture, whenever these exercises shall come 
to be regarded as indispensable to every district school. 

When the soil is not naturally firm, an artificial soil should 
be substituted ; and the main building should always be ele- 
vated, at least two or three feet above the surface immediately 
around it. 

The height of the house, if thus elevated, need not exceed 
a story and a half. This will give room for placing the win- 
dows higher than usual in the wall, a point which will be in- 
sisted on hereafter. The ceiUng should be arched, the walls 
plastered, and whitewashed, or perhaps painted. 

A building intended for about sixty pupils, should be 40 
feet in length, by 30 in breadth. This is probably a greater 
than a medium number of pupils, but for a larger or smaller 
number, the same plan may be observed, increasing or dimin- 
ishing the size of the building accordingly, though not in exact 
proportion to the increase or diminution of numbers, because 
the doors, entries, stove, &c., will occupy nearly as much space 
in a small house, as in a large one. For one hundred pupils, 
48 by 40 feet is a convenient size; for fifty, 36 by 30 ; for thirty- 
six, 34 by 24. But a considerable number of the schools in 
the northern and middle States, contain fifty to sixty scholars, 
at least in the winter ; and consequently require a building as 
large as is here contemplated. (*S'ee the drawing, No. 1.) 

In the plan here proposed, separate entries (a a) for the 
sexes occupy the south end of the building, each of which is 
15 feet in length, by 5 in breadth. Within these entries, a 
suitable number of wooden pegs are placed, at a proper height, 
and suitable distance from each other, for hats, coats, and 
cloaks ; and a few benches or stools for the use of the smaller 
pupils, while adjusting their shoes, clothes, &c. The di- 
mensions of the school-room itself are 35 by 30 feet, including 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. « 

the insirncier's plat.torm. 'I'his platform {b) consists merely of 
an elevation of the floor across ttie north end of the room, to 
the height of 18 inches, and 4 feet in width ; on which are a 
moveable desk and seat (c) for the instructer. 

The seats and desks for the pupils, (d.) occupy the central 
part of the room, and are arranged in rows from north to south, 
in such a manner that the pupils face the instructer. There 
are eight rows, having seven desks in each row, with corres- 
ponding spaces or aisles, (e) 1^ feet wide, between the rows. 
The desks are 2 feet long, If feet wide, and the seats about 
a foot square. The latter, except those at the southern end 
of each row, are attached to the desks immediately behind 
them, in such a manner, that the front of each desk forms a 
back to the seat of the pupil who occupies the next. 

The desks and seats are so constructed as to leave no shelves 
or cavities under them. Each seat is, in effect, a square box 
closed on all sides. It is well known to instructers that when 
the hollow under the seat is left open as a place of deposit for 
a hat, &.C., or shelves furnished for books uncle?' the desk, 
playthings of various kinds, together with the shells of nuts, 
and the cores and stones of fruits, are accumulated here by 
indolent or vicious pupils, to such an extent as often to occa- 
sion much trouble. It is to prevent the possibility of evils of 
this kind, in part at least, that a different construction is re- 
commended. With the same view, as well as to favor clean- 
liness, and purity of the air, all hats, spare clothes, provisions, 
fruits, &c., should be left in the entries. Flowers may, how- 
ever, be permitted to remain in the room during the day time, 
as they purify, rather than injure the air. 

The proper and most convenient place for the pupils' books 
and other apparatus, is a box or case in the front part of 
each desk. The relative position of this box will be illustra- 
ted by drawing, No. 2. • Its width is 8 inches, and its depth 
about a foot, so as to receive the largest slates, atlases, and 
writing-books, when placed edgewise ; for which purpose there 



10 PRIZE ESSAY. 

is a narrow division of the bux. lormed by a thin partition. 
The largest division is for books only. The lid, (c) when 
closed, fornis a j^>art of tlie upper surface of the desk. That 
part of the desk which forms the back to the next pupil's seat, 
is elevated about 3 inches al)ove the level of the desk, laoth for 
his accommodation, and to prevent the lid of the book-case from 
falling over too far in that direction. 

The height of the desks and seats is proportioned to the 
height of the pupils who occupy them. They also bear a 
certain proportion to each other. Those which are nearest to 
the instructer's platform are the lowest, and those which are 
most remote; the highest; both because the pupils who most 
need the instructer's aid will be nearest to him, and reiDoved 
farthest from the noise which is sometimes unavoidable about 
the stove and entries ; and because the view of the school from 
the platform wnll be more complete. 

The particular arrangement of each seat and desk, is such 
as almost to compel the person occupying it to sit in an erect 
position. The edge of the desk will be directly over the edge 
of the seat. In writing, the arms will hang naturally by the 
side, while the flexure at the elbow will be such, lliat the lower 
portion of the arm, with the hand, will form a right angle with 
the upper portion, and rest lightly upon the desk. The desks 
will thus be much lower than is usual, but all parts of the 
body, as well as every limb, will be at the same time free and 
unconstrained. This is a point of vast importance. The 
most cotntiion position at the school desk is extremely unfa- 
vorable to the healthful action of the lungs, sicmach, liver, 
&,c., as well its liable to produce distortion of the spine, and 
consequent disease. Some have recommended desks gently 
sloping. My chief ol^jection to this, is, that it is not common 
to meet with them in this form in the daily business of life. 
Not one in six of the pupils will write on a sloping desk after 
leaving school. Besides, the view of the instructer from his 
platfoim will be slightly obstructed, the general aiTangemeiit 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-HOUSES. 11 

less siirple, and rather more expensive. On the proposed 
plan, the conf^truction of the whole is simple, and by no means 
expeiisive. Ths boards forming the desk and book case, are 
supported by i\vo broad pieces of plank placed upright at the 
ends, and by the seat attached to it in front. 

Although the present plan admits of but fifty-six desks, yet 
there is a seat (n) attached to the fore part of each of the eiglit 
desks u hich are nearest the ijistriicter's platform, which, instead 
of being, like the rest, about a foot square, are two feet in length. 
On these, eight small pupils, and in an urgent case sixteen, 
may be seated xcitkont desks. The whole number of pupils 
thus furnished with seats in the main room, would be seven- 
ty-two. These front seats will also answer another important 
purpose. Classes may sit here to recite to the instructer, or to 
witness experiments ; and if smaller pupils happen to be oc- 
cupying the seats, they can be transferred, for the time, to the 
stair [m) of the platform. 

Thus the whole school will generally face the instructer, 
who can oversee them from his platform, and pass, with the 
utmost ease and facility, from one to another, to direct or aid 
them, inspect their books, book-cases, slates, writings, <fec. If 
lessons are given, or exercises performed on the black boards, 
either over the instructer's platform or on the wall, they will 
be in full view of all the scholars, without moving from their 
seats. When a pupil wishes to leave liis seat, it can be done 
without disturbing half a dozen others, or compelling them to 
rise every time he wishes to pass, as is often the case when 
the desks are connected. There will be more difficulty, it is 
true, in crossing from one space or aisle to another ; but this 
will rarely be necessary. It will be better to pass around the 
north or south ends of the rows. When it is necessary, how- 
ever, to cross from east to w«st, only 07ie pupil is compelled to 
rise at a time. 

The spaces between the outside rows of desks and the walls 
are 2 feet in width. If black boards or lessons are placed up- 



12 PRIZE ESSAY. 

on the walls, it is desirable that these outer spaces should be 
4 feet wide, instead of two. It is not, however, indispen- 
sable ; and my present purpose is to give the smallest space 
which will answer for the proposed number of scholars. 

The instructer's platform may be occupied for various pur- 
poses. On it, the pupils may take their station to declaim, 
classes or individuals recite, and visitors be seated. Here, too, 
is an extensive black board, over which are cases for deposit- 
ing apparatus, and for the school library. If the school has 
a museum, or collection of natural and artificial curiosities, it 
is convenient to have this also near the instructer ; and if ex- 
periments are made in chemistry, or any of the other sciences, 
the platform will be very convenient for that purpose. The 
instructer will also have the means of keeping his eye, through 
the medium of the two windows at this end of the room, on 
the play-ground ; and through the most northern windows on 
the west side, on the garden, and adjacent portion of the en- 
closure. 

The stove stands near the entrances. Between the nearest 
row of desks and seats, and these entrances, there is a space 
: {po) unoccupied, except by the stove, {k) and other furniture 
about to be described. This space, 8 feet wide, extends across 
the whole width of the house. Between it and the first row 
of desks, are two movable black boards, or semi-partitions, 
(//) each 12 feet in length, and 5 feet in height, consisting 
simply of boards painted black on both sides, and nailed to 
upright posts, supported in an erect position by being framed 
to cross pieces, or sills, three feet in length. Their uses will 
be mentioned presently. 

This vacant space is naturally divided into two portions by 
the stove. Seats {g) are furnished to both ; taking care, however, 
to leave sufficient room to pass the semi-partitions to the prin- 
cipal school-room. If the monitorial system is adopted in any 
of its various modifications, this will be a proper place for i-eci- 
tation. Indeed, let the system of instruction be what it may, 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-HOUSES. 13 

these spaces will furnish every advantage of separate recita- 
tion rooms, with but half the expense. The south side of 
the semi-partitions will furnish them with a black board. At 
other times, the instructer might use these places as an appro- 
priate retirement for reproof or discipline. But 1 have princi- 
pally in view another object still. The time, it is hoped, is 
not far distant when every school of any considerable size 
will be divided into two departments. When this period shall 
arrive, the female assistant teacher may occupy these apart- 
ments, with ten, twenty, or even thirty pupils, until the public 
mind shall be so thoroughly awakened to the importance of 
such an arrangement, as to erect, for the purpose, still more 
ample and commodious buildings. 

The movable black boards also answer several other im- 
portant purposes. The side towards the instructer will often 
be convenient as a black board for the main school. Being 
five feet high, they may also be placed in such a manner as to 
screen the pupils near it from that intense heat, which occa- 
sionally emanates from a stove, as well as from currents of 
air from the doors, when tlie pupils are coming and retir- 
ing. 

The majority of existing school-houses are very imperfectly 
hghted, as has already been observed. But on the present 
plan, the windows (lo) are so arranged as alv\'ays to afford 
sufficient light ; and if in excess, curtains should be inter- 
posed. 

It is believed that the windows of a school-house ought to 
be elevated about 5 feet above the floor. The following are 
some of the reasons. 1st. It will in this way be more diffi- 
cult to look out at them, and much trouble will thus be saved 
to the instructer. It will also preclude the necessity of nailing 
boards across the lower part of windows to prevent the pupils 
from looking abroad, as is sometimes done. 2. They are less 
liable to injury. 3. There will be less exposure of the pupils 
to currents of air. 4. This structure is favorable to ventila- 
32 



14 PRIZE ESSAY. 

tion, especially if the upper part of the windows be made (as 
they ought to be) to be lowered at pleasure. 5. The light 
will not strike so directly upon the eyes of the pupils, as when 
the windows are lower in the wall. 6. Another reason of still 
greater importance is, that by having a broad space left below 
the windows, room is afforded for prints, paintings, engravings, 
maps, and charts ; or for any other similar means of instruc- 
tion. 

The windows ought by all means to be furnished with cur- 
tains and blinds ; and if the former are judiciously selected, 
they may be made to afford the material, or furnish sugges- 
tions, for many important and interesting lessons. It is de- 
sirable that paper curtains should be prepared expressly for 
school-rooms, under the direction of some individual who un- 
derstands the wants and capacities of children. 

Holes or windows should be made in the roof of every school- 
house, that the impure air may sometimes be suffered to es- 
cape in that direction. The proper place for these windows is 
in the roof, about two-thirds of the way from the south to the 
north end of the building. One method of raising the shut- 
ters and opening these windows is, by means of ropes fastened 
to their tops, and the i carried over pulleys and suspended in 
the room. The windows may fall by their own weight; 
or if not, by means like those devised for raising them. There 
mus(, of course, be holes or spaces in the arched ceiUngof the 
room, to correspond with these windows. 

The floors of school-houses should be made of oak, or some 
very hard wood ; not only because it resounds less, but because 
it is more durable. If the desks and seats were made of the 
same material, they would probably be less exposed to injury, 
especially from vicious pupils. For black boards a softer kind 
of wood is preferable. Linden, or bass wood, has been re- 
commended. 

The doors {h) at the north end of the room communicate 
with the garden and play-grouad, and also serve for the ad- 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. 16 

mission of fiesh air, either to cool the room, when necessary, 
or to aid in ventilating it. 

Notwitlistanding every ariangement hitherto proposed, it is 
obvious that the sLib;e>:t of veiitilatioti may not receive that 
attention whicli its importance demands. Spacious apart- 
ments, Uke that which I have proposed, are indispensable, as 
well as a due regard to the number and position of the doors 
and windows. Still, if the latter are kept constantly closed, and 
the pupils are not permitted to stir from their seats oftener than 
once in an hour, or an hour and a half, their health may be seri- 
ously impaired. Respiration alone contaminates the air at a 
rate which is truly surprising to those who have not been accus- 
tomed to examine the subject. When to this source of im- 
purity we add the effluvia which are constantly escaping from 
the surface of all living bodies, together with other causes 
which are at the same time operating, we can scarcely avoid 
wondering why the immediate injury sustained by the hu- 
man constitution in confined rooms is not greater than we 
find it. Nothing but the fear of extending my remarks to an 
improper length prevents me from devoting several pages to 
this important subject. I cannot but indulge the hope, how- 
ever, that it will soon be investigated, and the results presented 
to the public. At present I will only add, that after every pre- 
caution in regard to ventilation, which human wisdom ca i de- 
vise, every pupil should be required, and, if necessary, com- 
pelted to go out into the open air, at least once in an hour. 
Probably once in half an hour is not too often. 

The best method of warming school-rooms is by means of 
air heated in some adjacent apartment, and conveyed into the 
room by pipes or funnels. When this course is not adopted, 
I prefer for the purpose an open stove, with either dry wood or 
charcoal. Much loss is sustained by burning green wood. 
The fore part of the stove should be towards the entrances, and 
pipe enough should be used to keep up as equable a tempera- 
ture in the room as possible. During the cold season, fires 



16 tRIZE ESSAT. 

sliould be prepared about two boms before tbe time of opening 
school in the morning. The room may then be ventilated 
often, as the heated walls, floors, and furniture will quickly re- 
store the temperature of the air. A thern)ometer is useful, and 
the heat may be graduated by it. The pujjils should not be 
siiffered to leave the school at evening in a profuse perspira- 
tion, as sometimes happens, but the temperature should be re- 
duced gradually during the last hour of the afternoon, until 
they can go out with safety. 

Without adverting to the subject of personal cleanliness, 
\vhich indeed does not come within the scope of the present 
essay, I cannot refrain from urging the importance of paying 
the strictest regard to tlie purity of the walls, ceiling, floors, 
and furniture, by frequent washing, scouring, brushing, &c. 
Mats and slioe-scrapers at every door are indispensable ; yet 
nothing is more generally neglected. 

It is surprising, that while a large proportion of the dwell- 
ing houses in this country are painted, and the expense is 
<3eemed necessary in point of economy, we scarcely ever see 
a painted school-house. "Would it not render the covering of 
these, as well as that of other buildings, more durable ? But 
placing economy out of the question, what adult person is so 
destitute of taste, as not to prefer painted buildings even on ac- 
count of the appearance? And are not children better pleased 
with handsome houses, fences, Wcdls, &c., than with those of 
a contrary description ? 

If the walls in the interior of ^the school-room are painted, it 
4s desirable to have it done with a reference to the improve- 
ment of the pupils. Numerous interesting and instructive 
scenes might thus be presented, both historical and descrip- 
tive. The floor should be level, rather than sloping (as some 
have recommended) towards the instructer. Every school 
will need some kind of time-piece, which should be placed over 
the instructer's platform, in full view of the pupils. 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-HOUSES. 17 

I have already said that every school ought to have a spa- 
cious play-ground. The means of performing gymnastic exer- 
cises should be afforded, but to what extent I an) uncertain. 
But I cannot help anticipating a period wlien every common 
school will have the means of attending to agricultural and 
mechanical pursuits more or less every day, and be furnished 
will all the necessary implements^ made of a proper size for 
the smaller, as well as the larger pupils. It is to be feared, 
however, that though strict economy, no less than the health 
of the pupils, is believed to require it, the day when they will 
come into general use, is still distant. 

It may be objected, that the school-room here proposed, is 
Inrger, and consequently more expensive than is necessary 
for common schools in country towns. But it affords scarcely 
nineteen square feet of surface, that is, a space about four 
feet square to an individual : while it has been estimated that 
a space four feet square, and of the usual height of rooms, is the 
least which can be occupied for one hour by a pupil with 
safety. The air is supposed to be rendered entirely unfit 
for healthy respiration at the rate of a gallon a minute, or about 
a hogshead an hour. But as the carbonic acid, from its greater 
gravity, settles towards the floor, a hogshead of this air will 
reach about to the height of a child's head, who is sitting con- 
fined to the space above mentioned, or so nearly that he can- 
not avoid inhaling it. 

Were not the detail too horrible, I might relate the dreadful 
story of destruction at Calcutta. At present I will only say, 
that one hundred and forty-six persons were confined to a room 
18 feet square, for ten hours ; and though there was one 
opening for the admission of air and light, only twenty-three 
persons were living at the end of ihcit time. They were 
destroyed by the impure and poisonous air. Can children, in 
groups of fifty or one hundred, spend even one hour in rooms 
of similar dimensions, and escape whoUj^ uninjured? 



18 PRIZE ESSAY. 

I visited a school not long since where there was about 30 feet 
of space, that is, an average of much more than 4 feet square, 
to an individual. 1 inquired if the room was not unnecessarily 
large. "By no means," said the teacher. " I should be unable 
to spare a foot of it." An able instructer once informed me 
that he visited a school-room in the city of New York, where 
more than twice even the last mentioned space was afforded 
to each pupil. Yet he voluntarily remarked that there was 
no loss, but great gain, from having so much room. The ease 
and freedom with which the varied duties of the school can 
be performed where ample space is allowed, and the conse- 
quent increase of progress in science, will more than compen- 
sate for the additional expense, were health out of the ques- 
tion.* 

In regard to the expense of erecting separate desks, I am 
most decidedly of opinion that the amount of time saved by it, 
will be more than a sufficient compensation. Any thing 
which saves time^ saves money ; and I think time enough 
would be saved in three years by single desks, to amount, at 
the lowest possible estimate, to $100, including food, clothing, 
and tuition — for these are properly included in the estimate. 

* From a statement of Dr. Bache, quoted by the Journal of Health, 
Vol. II. No. 6, it appears that each of the cells for solitary confinement, 
in the new Penitentiary at Philadelphia, contains more than J300 cubic 
feet of space ; which is equal to a room 14 feet long, by 12 wide, and 
nearly 8 high. I am acquainted with several school-rooms smaller than 
this, and without ventilation ; while in the cells alluded to, the most 
thorough attention is paid to ventilation, cleanliness, and temperature. 
The prisoner is also allowed an amount of exercise in the open air, 
when the weather is favorable, almost equal to that which is allowed 
to the pupils in many of our schools. In one instance, the amount of 
space to each school-room prisoner, is less than 36 cubic feet, while 
tlie adult convict in the penitentiary is allowed more than 1300! Much 
complaint has been made of the danger of life and health from con- 
finement in these cells ; but how seldom do we hear the voice of re- 
monstrance against contracted school-rooms ! 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-HOUSES. 19 

The saving need be but fifteen minutes a day to each of fifty 
pupils. Let him who has had experience in the business of in- 
struction say whether more than even this amount of time is 
not lost, by the present arrangement of a majority of existing 
school-rooms. My purpose has been to keep economy in view, 
in every suggestion. Separate desks for each pupil I regard 
as absolutely indispensable. As to the increase of size which 
they give to the school-room, it should be remarked that the 
purposes of health cannot possibly be answered without an 
amount of space at least as great as I have proposed, whether 
we use single desks or not. 

The height of the windows may be objected to by some. 
But the reasons for this innovation upon the prevailing cus- 
tom have been fully given ; and though it may be regarded 
as a violation of good taste, the numerous advantages which 
this arrangement will secure, vastly outweigh every other con- 
sideration. 

Should it be said, that the room thus constructed^ cannot 
he used with so much co7ivenience for meetings or for oth- 
er purposes, — my reply is, that it was not designed for other 
purposes, but for a school-room. If it can be used for meet- 
ings and other purposes without injury, so much the better; but 
nothing should be permitted to interfere with its primary ob- 
ject. Even recreations should not be permitted here. If storms 
or inclement weather absolutely forbid going into the play- 
ground, or if there be no roof thrown over any part of it, the 
division intended primarily for recitation, near the stove and 
entries, may be occupied for this purpose, but not the main 
room. 

Finally, it may be said that classes cannot be formed vdth 
so m,uch ease and despatch, on the present, as on the old 
plan. Did my limits permit, I think I could easily show that 
this objection is entirely without weight. Not only can classes 
be formed in their seats, almost instantly, but by moving only 
a single step, they find themselves in the spaces or aisles, ready 



20 PRIZE ESSAY. 

to march in a row to any place designated, — to the instructer's 
platform, the black boards, or the play-ground. In fact, the 
very construction of the desks, places the pupils in right lines, 
and alinost compels them to maintain that position. Each 
pupil is situated about three feet from his neighbors, at the right 
and left, and separated by the whole width of a desk from 
those who sit next to him in the other direction. Of course, 
It will be rather difficult for one to communicate freely with 
another ; at least without the knowledge of the inslructer. At 
present, it is not uncommon to see half a dozen heads huddled 
together. They inay be engaged in study ; but they may, 
too, be doing mischief. How much better is it to prevent 
evil, by such an arrangement that a vigilant instructer can see 
tlie whole school at a single view, and, with a proper degree 
of care, keep the pupils in the way of duty, than to expose 
them to unnecessary temptation, and then punish them for 
offending. 

If a room for the special purposes of a museum, and as a 
place of deposit for apparatus, should be desired, (and it is 
hoped it may be) the house must be somewhat larger ; 
and this room should be in the rear of the teacher's platform, on 
the same elevation. For the present, I have supposed shelves, 
cases, &c., might answer the purpose. 

Again — no provision has been made for the pupils standing 
at higher desks a part of the time, because it is believed they 
may sit without injury for about half an hour at a time, and 
then, instead of standing, they ought to walk into the garden, 
or exercise in the play-ground a few moments, either with or 
without attendants or monitors. Sitting too long, at all events, 
is extremely pernicious ; particularly where the desks are too 
high. This is one principal reason why a large part of our 
youth have their spine distorted, and the right shoulder higher 
than the other. For the same reason, and for v/ant of exer- 
cise, the muscles which are connected with the spinal column, 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-HOUSES. 21 

are but partially developed, and the whole body, especially the 
nervous system, is enfeebled. 

The relative position of each pupil should occasionally 
be changed from right to left, otherwise the body may acquire 
a change of shape by constantly turning or twisting so as to 
accommodate itself to the hght, always coming from a particu- 
lar window, or in the same general direction. 

If a portion of the play-ground is furnished with a roof, the 
pupils may sometimes be detached by classes, or otherwise, 
either with or without monitors, to study a short time in the 
open air, especially in the pleasant season. This is usually 
as agreeable to them, as it is favorable to health. A few plain 
seats should be placed there. A flower garden, trees, and shrubs, 
would furnish many important lessons of instruction. Indeed, 
I cannot help regarding all these things as indispe7isable, 
and as consistent with the strictest economy of space, material, 
and furniture, as a judicious arrangement of the school-room 
itself. 

Sensible objects, and every species of visible apparatus, in- 
cluding, of course, maps, charts, and a globe, are also regarded 
as indispensably necessary in illustrating the sciences. They 
not only save books, time, and money, as has been abundantly 
proved by infant schools, but ideas are in this way more firmly 
fixed, and longer retained. In the use of books, each child 
must have his own ; but in the use of sensible objects and ap- 
paratus, one thing, in the hands of the insfiucter, will answer 
the purposes of a large school, and frequently outlast half a 
dozen books. 

Such are the views which my own personal experience and 
observation have led me to adopt in regard to this important 
subject. I am aware that on some points they are opposed to 
prevailing opinions, but while I cannot suppose that they are 
entirely free from error, I cannot but hope that these and other 
means proposed for the improvement of our schools will not be 
rejected without bringing them to the test of a fair experiment. 
4 



PLATE I* 



FIGURE 1, 



NbriK 



1, .c=x. 



o. 






T 






-2Kt 



w 



w 



w 



TV 




^ 



o. 



/fc^ 



g: 



r" ^ ^ n il Mil t=^^ 



w 



w 



w 



a 



w 



■vr 



a 



"W AV^ 



- 1 J ' 
TV 



w 



FIGURE 2. 





1> 


e 




Jj 


e 








c 


*/ 




c 


•"/ 




a 


) 


7 


a 


1 



EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 



FIG. 1. THE PLAN OF THE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 



aa 


The two entries. 


b 


The Instructor's platform. 


c 


Instructer's desk and seat. 


d 


Desks, 2 feet by 14 inches. 


e 


Spaces between the rows of desks, 1^ feet wide. 


ff 


Movable black boards. 


e 


Seats, for those who are reciting, &c. 


h 


Doors. 


k 


Stove. 


m 


Step for ascending the platform. 


n 


Seats for small pupils, and for recitation. 


o 


Space 30 feet by 8, for recitation, &c. 


P 


Globe. 


r 


Library. 


8 


Place of deposit for Museom, &c. 


to 


Windows. 



FIG. 2. SIDE VIEW OF THE DESKS AND SEATS. 

a Seat. 

b Back of the seat, or front of the desk. 

c Case for books, &c. 

d Narrow division for slates, &c. 

e Lid to the book case. 

/ Form of the plank which is the principal support of each end of the 
^sk. 



APPENDIX. 



COMMUNICATION 



SIZE AND VENTILATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 



To the Committee of the American Institute, on the Subject of 

School-Houses. 
Gentlemen, 

The air we breathe is so common a blessing, that its value 
is not estimated ; and the importance of preserving its purity in 
schools, by constructing rooms of sufficient size, and providing 
ample means of ventilation, cannot be, appreciated, without 
considering the influence which it has upon life, health, and 
mental vigor. While I shall not attempt to offer an entire 
plan for a school-room, I have hoped to promote the general 
object you have in view, by collecting the principal facts in 
relation to the subject of air, which ought to be considered in 
its construction and arrangements. 

The heart of a healthy individual, of mature age, beats 
about sixty-six times a minute, or four thousand times an 
hour ; that of a child, much faster. The whole mass of the 
blood is supposed to pass through it, fourteen times an hour, 
or once in four minutes. After it returns through the veins 
to the heart, and before it is again sent out into the body, it 
is made to pass through the hmgs, where it comes in con- 



26 , APPENDIX. 

tact with the air we breathe, and undergoes several impor- 
tant changes. 

1. Its temperature is raised several degrees. 2. Its color 
is changed, from a dark red to a light crimson — a change 
which the venous blood will undergo when drawn from the 
body and placed in the air ; and it is found to contain an in- 
creased proportion of oxygen, or vital air. The whole mass of 
blood, thus altered every four minutes, conveys heat and nour- 
ishment and life to the extremities of the body ; and if the 
process be interrupted, or imperfectly performed, for four min- 
utes only, every organ and member of the body is of course 
more or less affected. 

These changes cannot he produced without the presence of 
oxygen^ or vital air ; and they are produced in a healthy 
manner, only, by such a mixture, as we find in a pure at- 
mosphere, consisting of 20 per cent, of oxygen, and 80 of ni- 
trogen. If an air less pure, or containing other gases, 
breathed, these changes are not thoroughly produced ; the 
lungs perform their task with difficulty ; and the body and the 
limbs do not receive their due supplies of nourishment, and 
vital energy. They are even injured by the half corrupt- 
ed state of the blood ; and that weariness and languor are 
produced, which is always the consequence of spending some 
time in a bad air. Thus the person, who attends a crowded 
assembly, where the ventilation is not complete, will find lassi- 
tude, and often, chiUs extending through every limb, and lan- 
guor invading every faculty of the mind ; a feverish, unpleas- 
ant taste in the mouth, a restlessness through the following 
night, and often a degree of exliaustion in the morning, hke that 
which succeeds a night spent in travelling. In order, there- 
fore, to preserve the body in health, even after it has gained 
maturity, and especially to supply it when it is growings 
and invigorate the constitution when it is forming, it is of the 
highest importance that the air should be preserved in that 
fttate of purity which the Creator designed. It is true, that dis- 



SIZE AND VENTILATION OP SCHOOL-ROOkS. 27 

ease and death do not immediately follow every deviation 
from this standard ; but it is also certain that some degree of 
injury must be irroduced ; and such a reason for neglect is 
as insufficient, as it would be to excuse ourselves for giving our 
friends or our children, food which was partially spoiled, or 
drink which was partially filthy, because it would not imme- 
diately destroy their lives or health. How preposterous and 
inexcusable would every one regard it, to give them their food 
constantly mingled with poison, or their drink with pernicious 
and loathsome insects. Yet it is not less inexcusable to fur- 
nish them with half corr^ipted air, or that which contains 
poisonous gases ! The food is given but three times a day ; 
while the air is administered every mom,ent. The child is 
at liberty to receive or reject the food ; but hs is forced to 
breathe the air in which we place him. To put our children 
or friends in a room, which does not contain that supply of 
vital air which is necessary for their health, is not only to 
offer them a poison, but to compel thetn to take it. Who 
can tell how much evil has been ignorantly done in this man- 
ner — how much health and enjoyment have been destroyed — 
how many constitutions have been enfeebled ! The multi- 
tude of pale faces and meagre forms to be found on our school 
benches, and in our colleges, and our manufactories, will an- 
swer the question in part. 

The following is one fearful example of the effects of neg- 
ligence on this point. In the Pubhn Hospital, during the four 
years preceding 1785, two thousand nine hundred and forty- 
four children, out of seven thousand six hundred and fifty, died 
within a fortnight after their birth ; or thirty-eight out of every 
hundred. The physician. Dr. Clarke, suspected the cause, 
and introduced air, by means of pipes six inches in dia- 
meter. The consequence was, that during the three years 
following, only one hundred and sixty-five died out of four 
thousand two hundred and forty-three, or less than four in 
a hundred. The fair conclusion, therefore, was, that two thou- 



28 APPENDIX. 

sand six hundred and sixty-five children, of the previous years, 
died for want of pure air ! ! * We shudder at the history of the 

^ The following statements will show that diseases of the most dan- 
gerous character, are often produced by the want of ventilation, where 
no immediate injury is perceived. They are extracted from a work 
recently published in London, by Dr. George Hawthorn, on the sub- 
ject of ventilation. 

"The contagion by which Typhus Fever is produced," says Dr. 
Lind, " is generated in three ways ; the first of which is the confine- 
ment of the healthy animal exhalations in a crowded and ill-ventilated 
place." Mr. Howel, and others, who escaped from the black hole at 
Calcutta, were seized with the Typhus Fever. Dr. Chisholm, in his 
x)bservations on the remote causes of fever, says : The second pro- 
ceeds from human effluvia, arising from healthy persons, but, from the 
peculiarity of circumstances in which they are placed, in a state of 
morbid concentration, are capable of generating a principle similar to 
that produced by infectious and pestilential efiluvia." Dr. Fordyce, 
and others, state, that many brute animals are subject to Typhus, when 
crowded together in ill-ventilated places. It has been observed to 
break out among hogs and sheep. 

It is very common to find mild febrile attacks among the poor, appa- 
rently originating from cold, or other causes, becoming contagious in 
their course, in consequence of the confined and dirty situations in 
which the patients live. " I have known a nervous fever," Dr. Ferrier 
observes, " which was putrid also in several instances, preserved in a 
small town for almost two years, among the poor alone." In 1779, a 
fever of the nervous kind raged in Carlisle (England), which did not 
seem to be introduced firom any neighboring place. Dr. Heysham, 
with great industry, traced its origin to one of the gates, which was 
tenanted by five or six poor families." 

" I conceive it unnecessary to adduce more facts, corroborative of 
the important truth, that accumulated and concentrated animal effluvia 
are sufficient to produce diseases of a most malignant and pestilential 
nature ; or to give more references, to show that such has been the 
opinion of the most experienced and learned ivriters on the subject. It 
is a fact, established by the experience of ages, that the most destruc- 
tive diseases with which our cities and towns have been visited, have 
generally had their origin either among the poor, whose houses, besides 
being crowded, are the abodes of all kinds of filth and wretchedness, 
and destitute of every means of ventilation ; or in barracks, poor houses, 



SIZE AND VENTILATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 29 



" black hole of Calcutta ; " but here was a sacrifice of life, 
eighteen times as great, in an institution of charity ! 

A man in health, is supposed to breathe, on the average, 
twenty times in a minute, and to take in forty cubic inches of 
air at one inspiration ; or eight hundred cubic inches, equal to 
3i gallons per minute. Of this, one fifth only, or one hun- 
dred and sixty cubic inches is vital air, or oxygen ; and thirty- 
two cubic inches, or one fifth of the whole vital air contained, is 
consumed in the minute, in Order to produce the changes in 
the blood which are necessary to health. In five minutes, 
therefwe, the vital air of the whole 3i gallons would be con- 
sumed ; or, in one minute, the vital air of two-thirds of a gal- 
lon. In one hour, the whole vital air of nine thousand six hun- 
dred cubic inches, or forty-one gallons, would be destroyed, and 
respiration could no longer be performed. 

But in addition to this, an amount equal, or nearly equal, 
to that of the oxygen consumed, is produced of carbonic acid, 
formerly called fixed air (which often destroys life in wells) ; 
and this poisonous gas is breathed in place of vital air. At 
the end of half the time mentioned, therefore, we shall have 
an air composed of only half the proper quantity of oxygen, 
and corrupted by an equal quantity of a poisonous gas. In 
this view of the subject, we can hardly doubt that double the 
supply we have stated, i. e. twenty thousand cubic inches, or 

hospitals, prisons, ships, hoarding-schools ; or in places which are filled 
with animal effluvia, from a number of persons being confined or col- 
lected together. The necessity, therefore, of changing the air in all 
such situations, is too obvious to require comment. 

A dreadful example of the effects of air thus corrupted, upon indi- 
viduals who breathe it only a short time, occurred at what were termed 
the Black Assizes, held at the Old Bailey, in London, 1750. The ef- 
fluvia arising from a large number of prisoners, who were brought in- 
to the Court, or confined temporarily in rooms adjoining it, was so de- 
structive, that more than forty persons present were taken sick and 
died, including four out of six of the judges, and several of the counsel 
and jury. 

5 



30 AJ'PENDIX. 

eighty-two gallons per hour, would leave a person to faint and 
die. Facts confirm this estimate. 

Particular experiments were made on this subject by Dr. 
Henderson and Mr. Kite. Dr. Henderson breathed six hundred 
cubic inches for four minutes, or nine thousand cubic inches, 
equal to thirty-six gallons, an hour ; and was compelled to 
stop, after suffering much oppression and distress for breath. 

Mr. Kite breathed five hundred and ninety-one inches, for a 
minute ; equal to seventeen thousand seven hundred and thirty 
inches, or one hundred and forty-one gallons per hour, and was 
greatly oppressed for breath. He breathed the sam& quan- 
tity 1 J minutes, and the oppression became intolerable ; and 
in two minutes use of ^ gallons of air, (equal to seventy gal- 
lons per hour) he became giddy, his face swelled, and he fell 
iback in his chair. 

Halley says, that it requires at least one gallon per minute 
to sustain life, or sixty gallons an hour ; but this was the air 
compressed by being in a diving-bell, at the bottom of the sea ; 
and the quantity must be estimated higher at the surface of the 
earth. Lavoisier says, that, according to his experiments, a 
man would die in 5 cubic feet, or eight thousand six hundred 
and forty inches, in an hour. 

It would appear, then, that when a person is confined to 
■three hundred cubic inches, IJ gallons of air a minute, or to 
eighteen thousand cubic inches, or seventy-two gallons an 
hour, he will be in danger of oppressed breathing, and faint- 
ing. He will not receive the supplies necessary to maintain 
his vital energies without much more air. The question, 
^' How little can be afforded without immediate danger to life ?" 
is one which should never be asked by a kind, or even faith- 
ful educator, concerning that which God bestows in unlimited 
abundance, and which can only be excluded by inexcusable 
parsimony, or cruel neglect towards those under our care. We 
are not merely bound to keep children alive, but to give them 
-all the air which is necessary to invigorate their constitu- 
tions^ to produce comfort, and cheerfulness, and activity of 



SIZE AND VENTILATION OP SCHOOL-ROOMS. 31 

body and mind. We must therefore resort to the instructions 
of experience as to this point. 

Unfortunately, we have few particular observations in re- 
gard to scliool-rooms. 

The French writers on hospitals, deem it indispensable 
that each patient, (even in the private sick room of a school) 
should have 6 J cubic toises of air, — equal to fourteen hundred 
cubic feet ; and suck is the plan of the best European hospit- 
als. Sir Gilbert Blane says, six hundred cubic feet are neces- 
sary in England (with a climate much colder, and an air 
generally purer than ours) for each patient ; and that with a 
less quantity " it is impossible to maintain the requisite pu- 
rity of the air." If we take but half the quantity required 
by the French, (allowing the rest on account of disease) it will 
probably be a better rule for our climate ; and when we re- 
collect the superior means of ventilation in the immense rooms 
of a hospital (many of which are seventy feet long and four- 
teen high) this will bi/ no means be too much for a small, close 
school-room. We shall then have a space of seven hundred 
cubic feet for each pupil ; — or, supposing the room to be eight 
feet high, each child should have eighty-seven square feet, 
or a space of 8 feet by 11. It appears frorn the facts collect- 
ed by Mr. Adams,* that the smallest allowance, in several dis- 
tinguished schools which he visited, was 7^ feet; and the 
largest, sixteen to a scholar ; or, if the room were ten feet high, 
(as we believe those referred to are,) seventy-two to one hun- 
dred and sixty cubic feet. Lancaster, whose rooms in England 
were 15 or 20 feet high, in many cases allowed nine square feet 
to a pupil, or from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and 
eighty cubic feet to each ; and this where the most rigid econ- 
omy was demanded. Supposing the ceiling to be ten feet high, 
— at only the allowance of one hundred and fifty cubic feet to 

* See Adams' Lecture, in the collection of Lectures delivered be^v 
fore the American Institute in J 830. 



S2^ APPENDIX. 

an individual, the smallest dimensions of a room for thirty 
pupils should be 22 feet by 20 feet; — of one for fifty 
pupils, 30 by 25 — ^for seventy pupils, 35 by 30 — and for 
one hundred — 44 by 34 feet. A liberal allowance would re- 
quire at least one third more; and double the sjyace is 
highly desirable. But if we reduce the space occupied 
by each child to less than that here allowed, we hazard 
his health and constitution, as well as his immediate 
comfort, in order to avoid an expense comparatively of no 
moment. And with this amount of space, nothing but 
frequent and careful ventilation, and great attention to 
cleanUness, in the persons of the pupils as well as in the room, 
will prevent their suffering from the constant exhalations, 
(often loaded with disease) which arise fiom the skin, the 
stomach, and the lungs, and which cannot be weighed and 
measured, except by the baneful effects they sometimes pro- 
duce, when theyare suffered to accumulate. These exhala- 
tions, let it be remembered, are thrown off by the organs, be- 
cause they are injurious to the person himself. But with- 
out due ventilation they must be respired by others ; and not 
only that, they are mingled with the saliva in the mouth, and 
pass with it into the stojnach. Who can wonder at the loss 
of appetite, and diseases of the lungs and stomach, which are 
so commonly connected with ill-ventilated school-rooms ! Such 
places are literally nurseries of disease, and open sepulchres 
for health and happiness. 

In regard to the mode of ventilating school- rooms, it should 
be remembered, that the gases and exhalations in a crowded 
assembly are of two kinds — those Vv'hich ascend on account 
of their heat or lightness to the upper part of the room, and 
are perceived by those who sit in elevated galleries, or whose 
heads are in any way raised towards the ceihng — and the car- 
bonic acid or fixed air, which is heavier than the atmosphere, 
and therefore descends, and occupies that part of the room 
next the floor/in the same manner as it is found to settle in 



8IZK AND VENTIl-ATION OV SCHOOL-ROOMS. 33 

wells and cellars. To favor the escape of the lighter exhala- 
tions, it is indispensable to have openings over the lops of the 
windows, or in the upper part of the room ; and scarcely any 
degree of ventilation below will supply their place.* — ^In the 
winter season, an opening into the upper part of the chimney, 
when the draft is good, will answer the purpose. Where this 
is wanting, and especially in rooms where lights are used, a 
very excellent means of ventilation is found in an artificial 
chimney, formed by a pipe issuing from the upper part of the 
room, with a large funnel at the opening, in which a lamp is 
kept burning. By means of the strong draft here produced. 
Sir Hujnphrey Davy, the celebrated English chemist, cleared 
his laboratory in a very short time, after having filled it with 
noxious gases. 

But it is not less necessary to guard against the effects of 
the carbonic acid which settles in the lower part of the room. 
In caverns and wells, it often rises only to a certain height •, 
so that above this level an individual may breathe and a light 
may burn, perfectly well ; while a light would be extinguished 
and the respiration obstructed, or stopped, on descending below 
it. Thus, in the celebrated Grotto del Cane^ in Italy, in 
which this gas issues from the grotind, and although it is in- 
visible, can be found by its effects to flow along the ground, a 
dog will die, while a man whose mouth is elevated above the 
level of the gas, suffers no inconvenience. The teacher, there- 
fore, especially if he is elevated on a platform, will not always, 

* I presume many liave noticed a fact illustrating this remark, which 
I have more than once observed in travelling; that when a room which 
has been closed during the day in warm weather, is aired at night by 
windows opening only from below, the air will appear for a short 
time quite fresh ; but on shutting the Avindows, will become, in half an 
hour, as close as ever. In this case, the warm exhalations and lighter 
gases remained undisturbed at the top of the room ; and as soon as 
the lower air, Avhich has been cooled, becomes heated, and ascends, 
they are again brought down, and made perceptible. 



34 APPENDIX. 

be sure that the air of that part of the room in which the smaller 
children are breathing is good, merely because he perceives 
no want of purity in that which surrounds him ; and, like the 
man in the Grotto, may be surprised to find that one who 
breathes below him suffers from the badness of the air. On 
this account it is of great importance that no part of the room 
should be below the level of the dodVs ; and that regular pro- 
vision should be made for opening the doors frequently and 
for a sufficient time, to allow this deleterious gas to flow off. 
These circumstances seem to me very decisive arguments 
against making a school-room descend, as I have sometimes 
seen, towards the centre, producing a kind of " black hole " 
for the smaller children ; and they show the importance of 
employing rooms above the level of the ground, for schools, as 
well as other assemblies of people. The immediate evil effects 
are imperceptible perhaps; but seeds of disease and debility 
may be planted, which no subsequent care can eradicate. 

The best mode of securing regular ventilation as well as 
uniform heat in a school-room, during the season when the 
windows must be closed, undoubtedly is, to introduce the ex- 
ternal air from the side, and not from the cellar, of the build- 
ing, through a stove or furnace, so that it ma)^ enter the room 
warm, diffuse the heat equally throughout, and prevent 
the current of cold air which presses in at every crevice. In 
this way also, the doors and windows may be opened at any 
time, without cooling the room too much, as the air usually 
presses outward.* 

* Several excellent plans have been discovered for this purpose, of 
which I trust the Committee will furnish some account. I have found, 
that a common stove might be made to answer the same purpose, in 
some degree, in the following way : — Let a close case of sheet-iron be 
made of such dimensions as to rise from the floor to the top of the 
stove, or a little above it, on three sides ; and so large that there will 
be a space of two inches on all sides between the stove and the case. 
The stove should be raised on legs, or bricks, a few inches from the 



SIZE AND VENTILATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 35 

The facts and principles presented in this paper, have been 
collected with care, from the best and most recent authorities 
in Chemistry and Physiology within my reach ; * in the hope 
that they might serve to impress more deeply on the minds of 
parents, and of the guardians and visitors of our schools, the 
importance of providing the indispensable means of bodily 
health and intellectual vigor, for teachers and their pupils. 
It can scarcely admit of a doubt, that the premature decay, or 
sudden destruction of many a faithful teacher, and the debiliiy 
of constitution of many a pupil, is brought on by the insidi- 
ous but poisonous influence of the corrupt air in which they 
spend their days. The economy, which hazards such results, 
by providing small school-rooms, can only be compared to that 
infatuated avarice, which destroys life, in striving to obtain 
or to hoard the means of existence. In no single mode, 
probably^, could the American Institute be more useful, than 
in establishing and circulating correct views on this important 
subject ; and I cannot but hope that their eflbrts will be the 
means of extensive good, on this and many other subjects of 
vital importance to the interests of education, and therefore, to 
the prosperity of our country. 

I am. Gentlemen, 

Repectfully yours, 

WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE. 

floor, and the opening beneath closed in front with brick — the other 
three sides being closed by the case. Introduce the air from without, 
by a wooden trough, and let it rise under the bottom of the stove, and 
it will pass out between the stove and its case in a pleasant state of 
warmth. The trough should be furnished with a slide, to regulate the 
amount of air, according to the warmth of the stove and of the room ; 
and the case should be so constructed that it may be removed, in order 
to clean the space around the stove when necessary. 

* Among these are Hare's, Gorham's, Henry's, and Silliman's Chem- 
istry ; Richerand's, Magendie's, and Bostock's Physiology ; Londe's 
Hygiene ; The Paris Dictionary of Medical Sciences, and Rees' Cy- 
clopedia. 



CONSTRUCTION 



SCH OOL-RO OMS 



[The Censors have been favored with a comtnunication " On the Con- 
struction of School- Rooms " from the Rev. William Woodbridge, 
which was not offered for the prize of the Institute. On this sub- 
ject, Mr. Woodbridge speaks with the voice of experience ; and 
the following extracts from his communication, contain an exposi- 
tion of principles which are well worthy of attention. The Censors 
would not be understood, however, to approve oPthe plan proposed 
in this communication, in all its details.] 

The subject proposed by the Institute, requires attention to 
the best modes of constructing, warming, hghting, and airing 
school-rooms. The construction of a room necessarily depends 
on the objects to which it is destined, and the ends to be ob- 
tained ; and these must first be considered. No man ought to 
build, without counting the cost : viz. — For what purpose he 
builds as well as at what expense ; whether of money, or 
TIME, HEALTH, or LIFE. What millions have been wasted 
for want of the first ! What losses follow miscalculations in 
the last. 

Before stating any particular plan, I would make some gen- 
eral, but essential remarks. 



CONSTRUCTION OP SCHOOL-ROOMS. 37 

1. The intent of all theoretical and practical education is, to 
form the sound mind in the sound body. This is the cen- 
tral point to which all means are to be directed. How are the 
powei-s of genius to be developed in a sickly child ? What 
are the j)'iiblic uses of theology, in a dyspeptic divine 1 or 
the energies of wisdom in a consumptive habit? — in a walk- 
ing corpse? Health then, and wisdom, are the great objects 
of education : " United they flourish — divided they die." 
For this the church — the nation — is in mourningr. 

2. Fresh air., and cleanliness in every form, are absolutely 
and imperiously essential in our common schools. 

3. Clear light, easy and convenient seats and benches, that 
favor easy attitudes of body, appear to be important, if not es- 
sential points in the structure of school-rooms. Uneasy bod- 
ies render the mind uneasy and restless. Clear images of 
truth cannot be reflected from turbid and agitated water. 

4. To prevent is easier than to rectify disorders in a 
school. In order to do this, no scholar should be out of his 
teacher's eye five minutes in a day. 

Such vigilance is essential to order ; as it convinces the 
scholar that nothing can be done, even slily, without de- 
tection, nor can study be neglected without notice : it is a first 
principle in the teacher's art, the first in school tactics. There- 
fore every school-room ought to be so constructed as to render 
this great and incessant duty convenient. 

5. The " non-naturals,^'' to use the Physician's term, have 
great effect upon the mental temper, as well as the physical 
system. A village fiddler takes great care of his violin, keeps 
it carefully from w^et and dampness and too much heat, 
which affect the tone of its strings, and render them too 
tense or too lax ; surely then the nervous and muscular sys- 
tem requires attention. Mental habits are formed under the 
hand of the teacher. Passions are to be regulated into proper 
disciphne, for self-command, and social order, and regular sub- 



38 APPENDIX. 

jection. Nothing that belongs to the means of their regula- 
tion is trifling. 

" Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined." 

The distorted sapling is low, unshapely, and crooked, while 
the well trained tree, which is near it, grows tall and upright. 

LIGHT. 

Windows for a school-room ought to be high, for several 
reasons. 1. When low, the light is interrupted by every in- 
tervening object, and throws the pages of the reading and 
writing book into the shade. 2. Low windows when opened 
bring a current of air directly upon the pupils, and expose 
those before it. 3. Low windows incline the scholar to look 
out too long and too often. The upper sash of every public 
room ought to be hung with a weight, that it may be let down 
in order to allow the hot and lighter exhalations, which rise 
to the ceiling, to escape. 4. The saving- of glass would be a 
serious advantage in point of convenience and economy ; for 
low windows are often broken, and often go a long time un- 
mended, from the neglect of committees. 5. The same quan- 
tity of glass in a sky-light, would produce double the quantity 
of light. The sky-light might also be so hung as to air the 
room, often and easily.* 6. The end or side windows, ought 
to be high, and their light thrown upon the benches length- 
wise; otherwise it will admit an inconvenient shade. Every 
purpose then both of air and light will be best secured by high 
witidows, combined with sky-lights where it .is practicable, 
throwing the light lengthwise over the benches, supposing 
these to be sloping. 

* The glass might be of the kind called bull's eye, that would stand 
the weather, and be more secure from accidents. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 39 

HEAT. 

Heat in a school-room ought to be equally diffused through 
every part. This can rarely be done without a stove. No 
seats or benches ought to touch the floor, therefore, to pre- 
vent the free circulation of warm air to the feet. Such seats 
also would interrupt the sweeping, which ought to be done 
daily and toell. The fire ought to be kindled early in the 
morning ; otherwise children become uneasy and fretful, and 
nothing goes on well. When the warm air of a stove- 
heat meets the scholar's cheek, as he enters school, he is at 
once pleased and easy. On the other hand too great a de- 
gree of heat renders tlie scholars uneasy, listless and fretful, 
and the teacher more languid. 

There ought to be a thermometer in every school-room., 
and the heat regulated to fifty-five or sixty degrees. If 
the preservation and health of the plants of a green-house 
deserve this care, should it not be used for a school of children ? 
Our feelings often lead us to judge incorrectly of the tempera- 
ture ; and a teacher who is chilled or feverish, may render his 
scholars uncomfortably hot or cold, by regulating the room 
according to his own sensation. 

When the room is well warmed in the morning, little, if any 
additional fuel will be necessary until noon. The breath and 
perspiration of a school, will keep up the temperature of the 
room until nearly noon, when the heat ought to abate, to pre- 
vent too great a change in passing into the cold air. The 
same regulation should be observed in the afternoon, and es- 
pecially in the evening school. Stove-heat is far the most 
economical as well as most equally diffused through a room. 
It is of Uttle importance in what part the stove stands ; but it 
ought to have a. foot-hoard, say six or eight inches high, if 
the stove be twelve or fifteen inches from the floor ; and six 
inches wide, to set the feet on, in order to dry and warm them, 
and at a safe distance from the stove. To set with cold or 
wet feet, for several hours, produces immediate uneasiness, 



40 APPENDIX. 

and often clanger. Above this, there ought to be a raihng to 
prevent the children coming too near the sides and top of the 
stove. An open fire-place is sometimes dangerous^ and even 
fatal, to children dressed in cotton. I have had two or three 
grown children whose clothes have taken fire, who were saved 
with difficulty, from dangerous if not fatal burning. No 
school-room ought to be left without some careful person, nor 
the fire renewed without the teacher's direction. 

AIR. 

The quantity of fresh air necessary to life, amounts to more 
than one gallon for each person for every minute, or seventy- 
two gallons an hour. So much then must be ruined by res- 
piration ; and so much restored by ventilation every hour. 
For want of this change of air, attendance upon meetings in 
a schoohhouse or confined room, soon communicates lan- 
guor and weariness to a painful degree. Attendance on a 
crowded assembly is followed by a sleepless or restless night ; 
and a weary day follows from no other cause. How many 
asthmatic and. fatal lung complaints arise from this single 
cause. 

In looking back upon the languor of fifty years of labor 
as a teacher, reiterated with many a weary day, I attribute a 
great proportion of it to mephitic air ; nor can I doubt that it 
has compelled many worthy and promising teachers to quit 
the employment. Neither can 1 doubt, that it has been the 
great cause of their subsequent sickly habits, and untimely 
decease. A few, by timely vigilance and care, have prolonged 
life, until age has given them a fair discharge. It is to be 
noted that they were men of temperance, either from inclina- 
tion, virtue, or necessity — or men of very strong natural con- 
stitution. But how shall we prevent the deleterious effects of 
want of air, which Ave have described, upon the physical and 
mental system ? From eight to sixteen square feet of area in 
a school-room have been estimated as necessary to secure a 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 41 

convenient space for air and tiie exercise of the school. Why 
not be liberal of space and air? Parsimony here is '■'■ penny- 
wise,^^ it is extravagance of health and life. 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 

In the division of a school- room, 1 would place the teacher 
on an elevated platform, eighteen or twenty-four inches 
above the horizontal floor of the house, from which his eye 
can easiest view every part. This platform may serve as a 
stage for speaking and reading select pieces. In front of this 
platform, on each side of the teacher's desk, should be a board, 
or desk, ten or twelve inches wide, and conveniently high for 
a class to rest their books upon when they are receiving les- 
sons, or occasionally to place an idler at, to study. Behind 
the teacher's platform, ought to be a book-closet, for maps, ap- 
paratus, or instruments for school use. A clock that would cost 
from five to eight dollars, would save its cost every week, be- 
sides fixing the habit of punctuality, of diligent study and or- 
derly recitation. Time is money. Every minute lost in a 
school of forty-five scholars amounts to three-fourths of an 
hour. And all this may be saved several times every day, 
by the punctuality which a clock produces. 

DESKS AND BENCHES. 

Having tried all kinds of seats and boxes, I prefer those of 
the Andover and Exeter academies. These consist of seats 
and boxes twenty-four inches long, fifteen to eighteen wide ; 
sloping one inch, with the lid \\ or 2 inches wider than the 
body of the desk ; risin-g from the seat to the elbow of the 
student. One inch higher might be as well, or even better. 
The boxes, or desks, may be four or five inches deep next 
the seat, and six or seven on the other side. The parting of 
these desks should consist of 1 J inch cross-pieces, upon which 
the lids will rest. The back of each seat will support the box 
fiart of the seat behind it. These upright backs will be mor« 



42 APPENDIX. 

ticed into two upright plank posts, and these posts into two 
wide joists, of four or five inches thick. The seats, say ten or 
twelve inches wide, may be twelve to fourteen or fifteen inch- 
es high ; more or less, to suit larger or smaller boys. Between 
the seat, and its desk, allow only room to stand up. All seats 
ought to have open backs, with narrow boards on the top to 
rest the back upon. 

I have thus given my views in a brief and hasty manner, 
which circumstances render unavoidable, and request the In- 
stitute to dispose of them as they deem best. 

(Signed) WILLIAM WOODBRIDGE.* 

* The Rev. Mr. Woodbridge is now seventy-five years of age. He 
was the first principal of the Phillips Exeter Academy. He commenced, 
in 1780, the only school known for instructing females in the high 
branches of knowledge, was instrumental in forming the earliest as- 
sociation of teachers of which we have any account in this country, in ^ 
1799^-and was for fifty years actively engaged in teaching. 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-ROOMS. 



[The following judicious and pertinent hints are extracted from the 
*' School Magazine " for April, 1829. It is hoped they may furnish 
some useful suggestions to teachers and others who are interested 
in Elementary Schools.] 

In the selection of school-rooms in cities, the following 
things seem highly important : that the situation chosen he 
not confined, or dark, or damp, but embrace, as far as pos- 
sible, the advantages of pure air and free circulatio7i, along 
with the full privilege of light, and, if possible, a pleas- 
ant aspect. Surrounding objects should, as far as possible, 
contribute to cheerfulness. This is a principle of great im- 
portance in all our arrangements for early education. 

Where the advantage of a play-ground can be had, pains 
should be taken to keep it drp ; as it cannot otherwise be 
wholesome. If a plat, ever so small, can be appropriated for a 
few shrubs and flowers, or even a single tree, it may be ren- 
dered a source of valuable instruction, as well as of immediate 
enjoyment. 

A little care will prevent any injury being done to such a spot, 
or its productions. In the English infant schools, a bed of 
shrubs or flowers is sometimes added to the play-ground, for 
the very purpose of affording opportunity of cultivating early 
the natural sensibilities of infancy towards the works of crea- 
tion, and of cherishing in the young mind habits of self-com- 
mand, and a respect for the rights of property. Mr. Wilder- 
spin, of the infant school in Spitalfields, recommends to all 
teachers of schools for little children, an arrangement of this 
sort J adding the testimony of his experience, that in several 



44 APliENDIX. 

years' teaching of children from indigent and perhaps ill-reg- 
ulated famihes, he seldom or never found this expedient for 
juvenile improvement fail of producing the happiest effects. 

To render school-rooms in cities less injurious to the health 
of young children than they sometimes prove, the following 
precautions have been found serviceable. To dispense en- 
tirely with close stoves, and to make use of open stoves., or, 
whefi possible, of fire-places. To keep a thefmometer in 
the school-room, for the 'purpose of regulating the tem- 
perature, vAiether in summer or winter. To have one or 
more of the windoivs made so as to let down at top. The 
raising of v;indo\vs sometimes throws a strong current on the 
heads and necks of children, when in a state of exposure fi'om 
a previously overheated room. At some seasons of the year^ 
this method of ventilating is dangerous, and in all it is inju- 
rious. In winter, and especially in the afternoon school hours, 
great relief from oppressive warmth or closeness, may be ob- 
tained by a single pane in the upper part of any of the win- 
dows being framed, so as to turn on small hinges, in the man- 
ner of a door. A. few circular openings in the ceiling serve, 
in some measure, the same purpose. To secure both of these 
last mentioned contrivances, w'ould probably be found most 
desirable. 

With these brief hints we must leave the subject of school- 
rooms in relation to the circumstances of a city, and proceed 
to the consideration of arrangements applicable to elementary 
schools in the country. We may be permitted, in the first 
place, a few remarks on the choice of situations for the erec- 
tion of school-houses. The selection of the spot on which the 
building stands, is too often made, in New England, at least, 
with mere reference to a location precisely central for the pop- 
ulation of the district. A little attention to the wants and 
comforts of the children, if substituted for the views and wishes 
of grown people, would lead to a choice very different from 
what is sometimes made. 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-ROOMS. 45 

How often may the passing traveller observe, whether in 
the severity of winter, or the scorching heat of summer, the 
district school-house exposed in an angle of a bare field, to 
the violence of the wind, or the heat of the sun, when, at the 
distance of a hundred rods, might be found the shelter of an ad- 
jacent eminence, or the shade of an inviting grove. Were pa- 
rents, in all cases when the site of the school-house is in agita- 
tion, to think of their childi en's happiness rather than their own 
predilections, the right decision would be always made ; and 
the building would be erected where education^ (and not local 
feeling;) required it to be. 

The free scope for exercise commonly enjoyed by children 
in the country, renders any arrangement for health less a 
matter of importance there, than it is in cities. Still, an enlight- 
ened regard to the influence of circiunstances in education, 
would lead to endeavor for securing every possible advantage, 
whether of a moral or a physical nature. It is by no means a 
rare circumstance, that the school-house is so situated as to have 
no adjoining space for recreation. Children are in consequence 
of this, sometimes left to find their amusement by playing in 
the road or in the street. In retired, shady, and pleasant situa- 
tions, this disadvantage is comparatively slight. In rainy or 
dusty weather, however, and where young children are of 
necessity exposed to an oppressive sun, the evils are obvious. 

To secure the safety of the younger children, without irk- 
some restraint, is also a matter of importance in central situa- 
tions, and near to roads on which there is much traveUing. 
An appropriate play-ground, besides offering attractions for 
pursuing recreation in a safe and suitable spot, becomes a 
source of pleasure as a property and possession, — a thing not 
without its influence, even in childhood. 

Many important considerations might be advanced, in ad- 
dition to those now offered, on this point. But our present 
object is to submit hints which may lead to further thought, 
rather than to attempt a full view of the subject. Besides 



46 APPENDIX. 

there are several useful exercises of an intellectual nature, 
which may be united with bodily recreation ; and for these 
purposes an adequate space, and sufficiently retired, by means 
of a fence or otherwise, is indispensable. This is more partic- 
ularly the case in regard to those blended forms of amusement 
and instruction which have been introduced with so salutary 
an effect in infant schools, and v/hich, with a little exertion, 
might be afforded to the younger classes of pupils in all pri- 
mary schools. 

Great benefit would often be conferred on health, and a 
valuable aid would be rendered to cheerfulness and mental ac- 
tivity, by extending the arrangements made for the education 
of childhood, so far as to furnish opportunities for exercise and 
recreation in unfavourable weather. A large shed construct- 
ed of the plainest Qnaterials, would, in thisvieio, be a very 
desirable addition to the accormnodation, and the innocent 
and healthful pleasures of children. In inclement weather, 
the labors of the teacher would sometimes be lightened by 
employing such a building as a receptacle for classes whose 
presence was not, at the moment, required in school ; and 
whose uneasiness must otherwise be repressed by stern 
measures, or be left to occasion disturbance and interruption. 

The subject of facilities for recreation we must now dismiss, 
with the single remark, that (his is a point of great importance 
to the whole character of the young. Measures for promoting 
health are of value in proportion as they are used early, while 
the frame is susceptible, and every favorable change is effec- 
tually seconded by nature. A clear, strong, and ready mind, 
is inseparably connected with health and activity of body ; 
and the purity of the young heart is best sustained in those 
instances in which the laws of the human constitution are at- 
tentively observed. The period of childhood offers, moreover, 
strong inducements for an affectionate care of its welfare, by 
the simplicity of the means it requires to be used for its advau- 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-ROOMS. 47 

tage. The infant does not ask for multiplied and costly re- 
sources ; it solicits, with nature's true eloquence, the privileges 
of protection and freedom, the cheering- light, and the invigor- 
ating air, and the use of its hmbs, — benefits in regard to which 
our prevailing views of education have been extremely narrow. 
The next topic to which we would invite the attention of 
our readers is the -plan on which school-houses are usiially 
erected. Several changes might be advantageously made in 
this particular. Of those w^iich seem most important one is 
tlie enlarging of the plan of the building, with a view to 
prolonging the season of teaching, and conducting the instruc- 
tion of the elder and the younger classes, during a part of the 
year, under the same roof. A more liberal allowance of space, 
than has been customary in the planning of school-houses, 
would at least afford opportunity for arranging and classing 
the scholars to better advantage, and for introducing new fa- 
cilities for instruction in several departments of education- 
Few measures, perhaps, for the improvement of popular 
education would be more effectual, than an arrangement which 
might afford the requisite facilities for advancing, in an ade- 
quate manner, the progress of the elder classes in common 
schools. The great number of children now usually under 
the care of the teacher of a winter school, and their very une- 
qual ages and capacity, hinder the improvement of all, by 
confining and emliarrassing the efforts of the instructer. To 
divide the school, so as to arrange the 3rounger scholars in an 
elementary department, under the care of a female assistant or 
of monitors, would be a great step towards a general reforma- 
tion of instruction. 

The additional expense of the salary of an instructress 
would probably amount, in some cases, to an entire obstacle to 
such an arrangement. But there are few school districts in 
which the requisite number of scholars sufficiently advanced in 
years and in education, could not be found, competent to render 
a limited but effective assistance, under the eye of a quahfied 



48 APPENDIX. 

master. In like manner, where summer schools are very nu- 
merous, the instructress, if adequate to the charge, might, by 
the instruction which she should afford to a female class of the 
proper age and ability, remunerate them for the assistance 
they might render, in teaching the younger scholars. 

To facilitate any plan of this sort, it would be desirable, in 
all cases, to have the school-room large enough to admit of 
the principal and the subordinate instruction going on at the 
same time, under the personal care and the superintending eye of 
the teacher. 

An improvement of some value in the planning of school- 
rooms would be gained by having tioo doors, instead of one. 
In this way, a separate entrance might he appropriated 
for scholars of each sex, or for the younger, and the elder 
classes. 

An improvement in the arrangement of the windows of 
school-rooms would be attained, hy placing them much high- 
er from the floor than is now customary, and having, if ne- 
cessary on this account, a higher ceiling. Several advantages 
would be thus obtained. A large space of wall would be gaiU' 
ed, which would admit of a range of maps, or useful tables, of 
letters, figures, weights, measures, &c., besides pictures illus- 
trative of geography and natural history, such as are now 
afforded in small and cheap publications adapted to primary 
schools. But the greatest advantage attained in this way 
would be a range of ' black board,' round the greater part of 
the room, for various uses in spelling, ciphering, and any oth- 
er department of instruction which requires or admits illustra' 
tion addressed to the eye. 

To elevate the windows of school-houses would be attended 
with two other advantageous consequences. It woidd tend to 
keep the attention of the scholars from being attracted to 
occurrences and objects 07it of doors, and in summer would 
afford opportunity of ventilation, without the disadvantage 
of throwing the current of air directly on the heads of thp 
children. 



PLAN 



VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE 



It is believed that the leading principles, advanced in the 
Prize Essay, will be generally approved by practical teachers ; 
but there may be those who would prefer a school-room ar- 
ranged on a plan somewhat different from that which the 
author proposes. The Censors have determined, therefore, as 
the whole subject was committed to them, to annex to the 
Essay another plan, which, they hope, will be acceptable to 
the members of the Institute. 

Plate II is the ground-plan of a village school-house, for 
both sexes, containing eighty separate seats and desks. Ad- 
ditional seats for small children, who may not require desks, 
can be introduced at pleasure, and the teacher can arrange 
them in such situations as may be most convenient. For this 
purpose a sufficient number of light, moveable forms should be 
furnished. 

The whole edifice, exclusive of the portico in front,— which 
may be omitted, if a cheap, rather than a tasteful building is 
required, — is 58 feet long, and 35 feet wide. The dimen- 
sions of the school-room allow 21 feet of floor to each of eighty 
scholars, the passages, teacher's platform, &c. beirig included, 
It is believed that this allowance is not too liberal,-— is not more 
than is required for the comfort, health and improvement of 



50 APPENDIX. 

the scholars.* If we were called upon to name the most 
prominent defect in the schools of our country, — that which 
contributes most, directly and indirectly, to retard the progress 
of public education, and which most loudly calls for a prompt 
and thorough reform, it would be, the want of spacious and 
convenient school-houses. 

The plan here proposed may be enlarged or diminished, 
for a greater or less number of scholars, according to the fol- 
lowing scale : — For ten scholars, add 4 feet to the length ; for 
sixteen scholars, add 4 feet to the width; for twenty-eight 
scholars, add 4 feet to both length and width. For a less 
number of scholars, the length or breadth, or both, may be di- 
minished at the same rate. 

In villages and populous neighborhoods, would not the in- 
terests of education be promoted, if the children were judi- 
ciously classed in a series of schools, according to their attain- 
ments 1 There might be one commodious building, contain- 
ing separate rooms for two, three, or more schools, according 
to the number of children that could conveniently attend. A 
regular system of studies for the whole establishment should 
be determined, and its appropriate part of that system be as- 
signed to each school. Stated examinations should be held ; 
and the scholars should be advanced from the lower to the 
higher departments, according to their progress in the several 
studies. To give a unity to the mode of government and 
teachings the principal instructer should exercise a general 
superintendence over all the schools ; and the senior pupils 
might be called upon, from time to time, to assist the teachers 
in the lower departments. They would thus render useful 

* It may not be amiss to state, that two of the Censors teach large 
private schools in Boston ; and, in their respective schools, they allow, 
for each of their scholars, about 22 square feet of floor, exclusive of eij- 
tries, dressing-rooms, recitation-rooms, &c. One of the school-rooms 
is 16 and the other 18 feet high, — the former giving about 350, and 
Ihe latter about 400, cubic feet of space, to each scholar. 



PLAN OP A TILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 51 

aid to the school, review their own studies in the best manner, 
and prepare themselves to engage in the business of teaching, 
should they wish to do so. In cities and large towns, such a 
union of successive schools is perfectly practicable ; and it 
cannot be doubted that such an arrangement would be attend- 
ed with many advantages. 

The school-room, represented in the plan annexed, is 48 
feet long, and 35 feet wide, within the walls. 

The floor of the room should he level, and not a7i in- 
dined j)lane. Nothing is gained by the common mode of 
finishing school-rooms with inclined floors ; and much is lost 
in symmetry, convenience and comfort. A faithful and active 
teacher will be about among his scholars, and not confine 
himself to a fixed seat, however favorably situated for over- 
looking them. 

Whether there be a stove in the school-room or not, there 
ought to be an open fire-place, where children may warm and 
dry their feet. The fire-place should be furnished with a hot- 
air chamber, to facilitate the ventilation of the room. 

The lids or tops of the scholars' desks are usually made to 
slope too much. They should be nearly, if not quite horizon- 
tal, — an inch to a foot being a sufficient slope. 

Each scholar should have a separate seat, which should be 
confined to the floor. The seat should be about 13 inches 
square, and furnished with a back not more than 10 or 12 
inches high. 

The fro?it rows of seats and desks, or those nearest the 
master's platform, being designed for the smaller children, 
should be lower than those near the entries. 



EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL 

P Doric Portico in front of the School-house. 
d, d, d, d, d Doors. 

B E Boys' Entry, 12 by 10 feet. 
G E Girls' Entry, i2 by 10 feet. 
W R Wood-Room, 11 by 8 feet. 
g Fire place. 
e Closet. 

f Sink, to be concealed by a falling door balanced with weights. 
D, D, D, D Passage around the room, feet wide. 

1,2,3,4,5^6 Stations marked on the floor, to be used by classes whea 
reciting to monitors. 
ABA The Teachers Platform, extending across the room, C feet 
wide and 9 inches high. 
B A part of the Platform, to be removed in the winter, if 

necessary, to make room for a stove. 
X Cabinet for apparatus, specimens, &c. 
y Book-case. 
H Master's Desk. 
/ Assistant or Monitor's Desk. 
F Centre Passage ; in the plan drawn 3 feet wide, but 4 feet 

woi:ld be belter. 
h Scholars' Desks, Id inches wide and 2 feet loii"-. 
c Scholars' Seats. 

a Pas.sages between the seats and the next row of desks, 15 
inches wide. A desk, seal, and passage, occupy 4 feet; 
viz desk Iti inches, space between the desk and seat 2 
inches, seal 13 inches, and passjge 15 inches. 
wj w, XB, &c. Windows, which should be placed higii from the floor. 

The scale on which Plate II. is drawn, is one tenth of an inch to a foot. 



ACT OF INCORPORATION 



COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. 

Ilf THE YEAR OF OUR LORD ONE THOUSAND EIGHT HUNDRED AND THIRTY' 

ONE. 

An Act to incorporate the American Institute of Instruction. 

Section 1. Be it enacted hy tlic Senate and House of 
Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by the 
authority of the same, That Francis Wayland, Jr., William 
B. Calhoun, "William Sullivan, John Adam?, John Park, 
Thomas H. Gallaudet, Andrew Yates, Roberts Vaux, Wil- 
liam C. Fowler, Reuben Haines, Gideon F. Thayer, 
Solomon P. Miles, William C. Woodbridge, Ebenezer 
Bailey, Abraham Andrews, Otis Everett and James G. 
Carter, together with their associates, be, and they hereby are 
made and constituted a Corporation in the city of Boston, by 
the name of the American Institute of Instruction, with all 
the powers, rights, duties and habilities usually incident to 
Corporations, for the purpose of promoting and improving the 
means of education and instruction in Morality, Science and 
Literature. 

Section 2. Be it further enacted^ That the said Corpo- 
ration may appoint such officers, and make such by-laws, 
rules and regulations, as it may see fit ; provided the same be 
consistent with the Constitution and Laws of this Common- 
wealth. 

Section 3. Be it further enacted, That said Corporation 
may hold real estate to the value often thousand dollars, and 
personal estate to the value of twenty thousand dollars, in its 



56 ACT OF INCORPORATION. 

corporate name ; and use and improve the same for the Ijene- 
fit of this Instil Lition, and for all lawful purposes incident to 
the poweis hereby granted. 

Section 4. Be it further enacted, That any persons 
named in this Act may call the first meeting of the members 
of this Corporation by public advertisement in any newspaper 
printed in Boston, two weeks successively before the day of 
meeting. 

Section 5. Be it further enacted, That this Act shall 
be subject to be altered, or amended, or repealed at any time, 
at the will of the Legislature. 

In House of Representatives, March 3, 1831. 

Passed to be enacted. 

WM. B. CALHOUN, Speaker. 
In Senate, March 4, 1831. 

Passed to be enacted. 

SAMUEL LATHROP, President, 
March 4, 1831.— Approved. 

LEVI LINCOLN. 



CONSTITUTION 



AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 



PREAMBLE. 

We, whose names are hereunto subjoined, pledging our 
zealous efforts to promote the cause of popular education, agree 
to adopt the following Constitution, and to obey the By-Laws 
made in conformity thereto. 

ARTICLE I NAME AND OBJECT. 

The Society shall be known by the title of the American 
Institute of Instruction. Its object shall be the diffu- 
Bion of useful knowledge in regard to education. 

ARTICLE II MEMBERS. 

1. Any gentleman of good moral character, interested in 
the subject of Education, may become a member of this In- 
stitute, by signing this Constitution, and paying, at the time 
of his admission, a fee of one dollar,* 

2. An annual assessment of one dollar, shall be laid upon 
each member, by neglecting to pay which; for more than one 

* Members of the Institute may receive their certificates of mem- 
bership by sending to the Treasurer the annual assessment. Gen- 
tlemen residing at a distance, who wish to join the Institute, may do 
80, by sending to the Treasurer one dollar, and authorizing hira to sign 
their names to the Constitution, 



58 ' CONSTITUTION. 

year after due notice from the Treasurer, he shall cease to be 
a member of the society. 

3. Any gentleman, by paying at one time the sum of 
twenty dollars, shall become a member of the Institute for 
hfe, and be exempted from all future assessments. 

4. Honorary members may be elected by the Institute, at 
the recommendation of two thirds of the Directors present at 
any stated meeting of that Board. 

5. For dishonorable or immoral conduct, a member may be 
dismissed from the society, by a vote of two thirds of the 
members present, at any regular meeting. 

6. Ladies, engaged in the business of instruction, shall be 
invited to hear the annual address, lectures, and reports of 
committees on subjects of Education. 

ARTICLE III MEETINGS. 

1. The annual meeting of the Institute shall be held at 
Boston, on the Thursday next preceding the last Wednesday 
in August, at such place and hour as the Board of Directors 
shall order. 

2. Special meetings may be called by the Directors. 

3. Due notice of the meetings of the society shall be given 
in the public journals. 

ARTICLE IV OFFICERS. 

1. The officers of the society shall be a President, Vice 
Presidents, a Recording Secretary, two Corresponding Secre- 
taries, a Treasurer, three Curators, three Censors, and twelve 
Counsellors, who shall constitute a Board of Directors. 

2. The oflEicers shall be elected annuall}'^, in August, by 
ballot. 

ARTICLE V DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 

1. The President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice Presi- 
dents, or, in their absence, a President ^ro tempore, shall 
preside at the meetings of the Institute, 



CONSTITUTION. 59 

2. The Recording Secretary shall notify all meetings of 
the society, and of the Board of Directors ; and he shall keep 
a record of their transactions. , 

3. The Corresponding Secretaries, subject to the order of 
the Board of Directors, shall be the organs of communication 
with other societies, and with individuals. 

4. The Treasurer shall collect and receive all moneys of the 
Institute, and shall render an accurate statement of all his re- 
ceipts and payments, annually, and whenever called upon 
by the Board of Directors ; to whom he shall give such bonds 
for the faithful performance of his dut}'^, as they shall require. 
He shall make no payment except by their order. 

5. To the Board of Directors shall be entrusted the general 
interests of the society, with authority to devise and carry into 
execution such measures as may promote its objects. It shall 
be their duty to appoint some suitable person to deliver an ad- 
dress before the Institute, at tlieir annual meeting ; to select 
competent persons to serve on Standing Committees, or to de- 
liver lectures, on such subjects relating to education as they 
may deem expedient and useful ; to collect such facts, as may 
promote the general objects of the society ; and to provide con- 
venient accommodations for the meetings. They shall, at the 
annual meeting, exhibit their records, and report to the Insti- 
tute. They shall have power to fill all vacancies in their 
Board, from members of the society, and make By-Laws for 
its government. 

6. It shall be the particular duty of the Curators to select 
books, and to take charge of the library of the Institute. 

7. The Censors shall have authority to procure for publica- 
tion the annual addiess and lectures. It shall be their duty 
to examine the annual reports of the Standing Committees, 
and all other communications made to the society ; and to 
publish such of them, as, in their estimation, may tend to 
throw light on the subject of education, and aid the faithful 
instructer in the discharge of hi? duty. 



60 CONSTITUTION, ETC. 

8. It shall be the duty of the President, the Vice Presidents, 
and Counsellors, severally, to recommend to the consideration 
of the Board of Directors such subjects of inquiry, as, in their 
opinion, may best advance the great objects of the Institute. 

9. Stated meetings of the Board of Directors shall be held 
at Boston on the first Wednesday in January ; on the last 
Wednesday in May ; and on the day next preceding that of 
the annual meeting of the Institute in August. 

ARTICLE VI BY-LAWS AND AMENDMENTS. 

1. By-Laws, not repugnant to this Constitution, may be 
adopted at any regular meeting. 

2. This Constitution may be altered or amended, by a vote 
of two thirds of the members present at the annual meeting, 
provided two thirds of the Directors, pi'esent at a stated meet- 
ing, shall agree to recommend the proposed alteration or 
amendment. 



BY-LAWS. 



I. At all meetings of the Board of Directors, seven mem- 
bers shall be necessary to constitute a quorum to do business. 

II. The Board of Directors shall annually choose a Com- 
mittee of Finance, whose duty it shall be to audit the accounts 
of the Treasurer, and, under the control of the Board of Di- 
rectors, to draw orders on the Treasurer for the payment of 
charges against the Institute. 

III. It shall be the duty of the Recording Secretary, on 
application of any two Directors, to call special meetings of 
the Board. 



OFFICERS 



AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 



PRESIDENT. 

Francis Wayland, President of Brown University, Provi- 
dence, Rhode Island. 

VICE PRESIDENTS. 

William B. Calhoun, Springfield, Massachusetts. 

William Sullivan, Boston, Massachusetts. 

John Adams, Andover, Massachusetts. 

John Park, Worcester, Massachusetts. 

Thomas H. Gallaudet, Hartford, Connecticut. 

Andrew Yates, Chittenango, New York. 

Roberts Vaux, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

William C. Fowler, Middlebury, Vermont. 

Reuben Haines, * Germantown, Pennsylvania. 

Benjamin B. Wisner, Boston, Massachusetts. 

Thomas S. Grimke, Charleston, South Carolina. 

John Griscom, New York city, New York. 

Timothy Flint, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Philip Lindsley, President of the University of Tennessee, 
Nashville, Tennessee. 

Alva Woods, President of the University of Alabama, Tus- 
caloosa, Alabama. 

Benjamin Abbot, Exeter, New Hampshire. 

William Wirt, Baltimore, Maryland. 

* D*e«t0«d. 
9 



62 



OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE. 



RECORDING SECRETARY. 
Gideon F. Thayer, Boston, Massachusetts. 

CORRESPONDING SECRETARIES. 
Solomon P. Miles, Boston, Massachusetts, 
William C. Wooderidge, Hartford, Connecticut 

TREASURER. 
Benjamin D. Emerson, Boston, Massachusetts. 

CURATORS. 

Abraham Andrews, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Frederick Emerson, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Cornelius Walker, Boston, Massachusetts. 

CENSORS. 
Ebenezer Bailey, Boston, Massachusetts, 
Jacob Abbott, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Cornelius C, Felton, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

COUNSELLORS. 
William J. Adams, New-York city. New- York. 
James G. Carter, Lancaster, Massachusetts. 
William Russell, Germantown, Pennsylvania. 
Joseph Emerson, Weathersfield, Connecticut. 
William Forrest, New-York city, New- York. 
Walter R, Johnson, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
John Kingsbury, Providence, Rhode Island. 
Samuel P, Newman, Professor in Bowdoin College, Bruns- 
wick, Maine, 
Henry K. Olfver, Salem, Massachusetts, 
Asa Rand, Boston, Massachusetts, 
Oliver A, Shaw, Richmond, Virginia 
Elipha White, John's Island, South Carolina. 



THIRD ANNUAL MEETING. 



The third annual meeting of the Institute will be held in 
Boston, on Thursday, the 20th day of August next. It is hoped 
that the members will not only be present themselves, as hereto- 
fore, but that they will also make others, who are interested in 
the subject of education, acquainted with the objects of the In- 
stitute, and thus induce them to come forward and assist its ef- 
forts, with their influence and active exertions. 

The committee appointed for the purpose, have not fully com- 
pleted the arrangements for the next anniversary ; they have 
made such progress, however, as leads them to believe that the 
exercises will be highly interesting and instructive. 

The Introductory Address will be delivered by President 
QuiNcY, of Harvard University. 

LECTURES. 

Lectures on the following subjects, will be given by the gen- 
tlemen whose names are annexed. 

1. Duties of School Committees. 

William B. Calhoun, Springfield. 

2. Moral Influence of the Physical Sciences, 

John Pierpont, Boston. 

3. The mode of teaching Natural Philosophy. 

Prof Hale, of Dartmouth College. 

4. Physical Education. 

Dr. George Hayward, Boston. 

5. The best mode of teaching the Learned Languages. 

Benjamin A. Gould, Boston. 

6. Modern Languages. 

Prof. TicKNOR, of Harvard University. 



64 THIRD ANNUAL MEETING. 

7. The best mode of teaching History. 

Prof. FisKE, of Amherst College. 

8. Geography. 

William C. Wooderidge, Hartford, Ct. 

9. Rewards and Punishments in Schools. 

John A. Vaughan, Hallowell, Maine. 

10. Emulation. 

• John Kingsbury, Providence, R. I. 

11. Defects of Common Schools. 

R. I. Howard, Newburyport. 

12. The proper mode of conducting Recitations, and the utili- 
ty of Questions in text-books. 

William H. Spear, Roxbury. 

13. Discipline of Schools for Females. 

James Furbush, Portland, Me. 

14. Elocution. 

John Barber, Westchester, Pa. 

15. Mode of Teaching Arithmetic. 

Frederic Emerson, Boston. 

16. Classification of Schools. 

S. M. Burnside, Worcester, Mass. 

It is probable that Lectures on some, if not on most of the fol- 
lowing subjects, will be delivered ; but the lecturers are not yet 
engaged : — 

1. The Philosophy of Language. 

2. Geology and Mineralogy, as branches of popular education. 

3. Utility and proper use of Visible Illustrations. 

4. Analysis of the Powers of the Mind to be developed in the 
process of Education. 

5. The teaching of Grammar and Composition. 

6. The influence of youthful Sports and Games upon the For- 
mation of Character. 

7. Legislative aid to the cause of Education. 

8. Discipline of Schools for boys, 

9. The peculiar Rights and Duties of American citizens, — 
and the best method of teaching them. 



THIRD ANNUAL MEETINO. 6S 

DISCUSSIONS. 
The Committee having been directed to propose questions, to 
be freely discussed during the next meeting of the Institute, 
they beg leave to offer the following. Other questions will 
probably be introduced by the members at the time. 

1. Is it expedient to establish modes of amusement, during the 
periods which may be allowed for relaxation, in school hours? 

2. Is a republican mode of government for schools, practicable 
and expedient? 

3. Should children be required to commit to memory what 
they do not understand? 

4. Is it best to attend first to a brief outline of a study, and 
then gradually to fill up that outline? 

5. Is it profitable that a scholar should be engaged in several 
studies at the same time ? 

6. Should the principle of emulation be resorted to, in educa- 
tion? 

7. Could the time, which is employed in the study of the an- 
cient and foreign languages, be more profitably devoted to the 
English classics, and the sciences? 

DISSERTATIONS. 
It is hoped the members of the Institute will be mindful of 
the votes,* passed at the last meeting, requesting them to commu - 
nicate the results of their experience for the general good. A 

* Institute, Monday, August 29. 

On motion of Mr. Woodbridce. » 

Resolved, That it be considered the duty of every member of the Institute, 
as his circumstances permit, to communicate the results of his experience and 
observations on the subjects discussed or proposed by the Institute, to the Cen- 
sors, to be by them published, or referred to appropriate committees, at their 
discretion. 

Board of Directors, August 29. 

On motion of Mr. Bailey, 

Voted, That the several members of the Institute be respectfully invited 
to communicate such facts relating to education, and such practical method of 
teaching in any particular department, as may not be generally known or prac- 
tised : such communications to be directed to the Recording Secretary, before 
the first day of August, 1832, and by him to be submitted to the Directors. 



LjBRARY OF CONGRESS 

029 448 904 6 

66 THIRD ANNUAL MEETING. 

vast amount of useful information might be thus collected. Dis- 
sertations on the following subjects are particularly requested : — 

1. The best method of teaching children the meaning of 
words. 

2. Modes of teaching the alphabet and a distinct articulation. 

3. The measures to preserve the natural form, the strength 
and health of pupils, while engaged in their studies; especially in 
relation to postures, while studying, and the changes which may 
take place in postures, and the space of time in which studying 
may be continued without intermission. 

4. The means best adapted to njake children happy in school ; 
and to lead them to regard the acquisition of knowledge as a 
pleasure, and not as a task. 

PRIZE ESSAY. 

Hy a vote of the Board of Directors, a prize of twenty dollars 
is offered for the best Essay on the teaching of penmanship ; 
with a view to ascertain some mode by which the loss of time, 
incurred by the common methods of teaching, may be obvi- 
ated. 

Competitors are requested to send their performances to 
Gideon F. Thayer, the Secretary of the Committee of Arrange- 
ments, as early as the first of August next. 

It will be remembered that all Ladies, engaged in the business 
of Instruction, are invited to atiend the exercises of the Institute, 

free of expense. 

E. BAILEY, Chairman. 

Boston, Feb. 12, 1832. 



